20,000BC basin of Don River inhabited by nomadic tribes.
600BC Asian people - Cimmerians, Scythians, Samartians,
move into southern regions.
200BC Northern forest regions inhabited by Slavs who begin
to spread:
- Eastern Slavs formed ancestors of Russian people;
- Western Slavs became Poles, Czechs, Slovaks;
- Southern Slavs became Serbs, Croats, Slovenes,
Bulgarians.
300AD Huns, Avars, Khazars, Goths spread around area
between basins of Don & Volga.
800’s Converted to Christianity, introduction of Cyrillic
alphabet by St. Cyril, Greek missionary.
862 Kievan Rus - country (consisting of principalities,
ruled by princes) founded at Novgorod by Rurik of Jutland as a result of
Vikings (Scandinavian Varangians) trading and controlling eastern area of
Europe.
988 Patriarch of Constantinople established Episcopal See
(church branch) in Kiev - beginning of Russian Orthodox Church, introduction
of Byzantine culture.
1200’s Taters (from Mongolia), led by Genghis Khan,
invaded principalities.
1300’s Taters lost power. Muscovy (Moscow) gained
increased influence as result of its’ part in defeating Taters.
1400’s Ivan III (1462-1505, prince of Muscovy) gained
power over most principalities (establishing the nation of Russia), introduced
central control of land (pomestie), with power held by local government
officials, reducing the rights of serfs.
Cossaks emerged (Tatars and disaffected serfs) as
self-governing communities in Ukraine & Kazakhstan.
1547-1584 Ivan the Terrible, noted for reign of wars and
suppression and first to use term ‘tsar’. In 1550 appointed first Russian
national Assembly (Zemsky Sobor), to reduce power of Boyars (nobles)
1598 End of Rurik dynasty of rulers. Boyars tried to take
power.
1606-13 Several pretenders to throne while Boyars and
Assembly (supporters of Tsar rule) struggled for power - known as ‘Time of
Troubles’.
1613 Assembly (power now held by Boyars) elected tsar, new
Romanov dynasty which ruled to 1917.
1600’s Rise in power of small landed gentry at expense of
boyar nobility and serfs. Internal uprisings (1670 - Cossack uprising, joined
by disaffected peasants and serfs, defeated and many moved, to open up
Siberia) and successful wars with Poland and Turkey. Major rift in Church as
patriarch, supported by government, moved closer to Greek Orthodox, forming
‘new believers’ group.
1696-1725 Peter the Great, a reformist Tsar, formed
alliances with Poland & Denmark, defeated Swedes and established
St.Petersburg (on land taken from Sweden) and made it the capital of Russia,
gained control of Gulf of Finland & eastern shores of Baltic Sea. Senate
(introduced in 1711, but powerless) named him Emperor of all the Russias,
creating the Russian Empire. Reforms enabled six further Tsars to rule without
major incident.
1762-1796 Catherine the Great - defeated Cossack uprising
1773. Many cultural reforms. Gained control over Turkey, eastern Poland &
Lithuania.
1784-1828 Russia gained control over Alaska, Georgia,
Finland, Bessarabia (now Moldovia), and Azerbaijan & Yerevan (in Armenia)
from Persia.
1801-1825 Alexander I - wars against Napoleon (Treaty of
Tilsit 1807) made Napoleon Emperor of West, Alexander Emperor of East (in
theory united against England). In 1812 Russia resumed trade with England and
Napoleon declared war on Russia. Napoleon defeated - Moscow deserted &
winter so troops starved.
1825-55 Nicholas I - in 1825 the Decembrists (nobles &
officers) demonstration against Nicholas (to be crowned Tsar on 26 December)
was crushed but sparked unrest among intellectuals for change in
political/government structure. Nicholas instituted strict measures, including
censorship and new secret police. Inept diplomacy led to Crimean War in 1854
against Turkey, Britain, France, ending in the defeat of Russia.
1855-1881 Alexander II, reforms including emancipation of
serfs (1861), education, judiciary, later returning to despotism due to
pressure of nobility. Expansion over central asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan), strip of Pacific coast from China and
built Vladivostock, sold Alaska to USA for $7.2M (1867).
1881-1894 Alexander III - oppressive controls with many
small revolutionary movements, but unorganised and quickly crushed. Pogroms
- violent mass attacks on Jews, encouraged by government to redirect tension.
Revolutionaries fled the country - Plekhanov & Axelrod founded Russian
Social Democratic Party (Marxist) in 1883 from Switzerland. Convert was
Ulyanov (Lenin), who set up Marxist unit in St.Petersburg in 1895, sent to
Siberia for 3 years, then stayed in Europe, organising the Party. In 1900,
populist group called Social Revolutionary Party established.
1894-1917 Nicholas II, autocrat, but dominated by others (including his
wife, Alexandra who was influenced by Rasputin, sinister Siberian peasant who
was killed in 1916 by court nobles) and oppression increased. Social democrats
elected to parliaments throughout Europe, but no parliament in Russia.
Meeting of Socialist International movement in London in 1903 where Lenin
(head of Bolsheviks - means majority, faction) proposed violent overthrow of
government (revolutionary Marxism) by small group of Party members and
Plekhanov (Mensheviks or minority faction) preferred mass membership and
co-operative action (conservative Marxism). Lenin won.
1905 saw movement for reform by the Union of Liberation
(later called Constitutional Democrats or Kadets), demanding civil rights and
freely elected assembly. Government did not act, leading to ‘Bloody Sunday’
- Father Gapon, revolutionary priest, led 200,000 workers in peaceful march to
the Winter Palace, guards killed several hundred. Anarchy followed with
strikes and killings. Social Democrats formed soviets (representative
worker councils) in St.Petersburg and Moscow.
Increased pressure when Japan defeated Russia in Russo-Japanese war (Japan
challenged Russia’s access to the Pacific and predominance in eastern asia,
by attacking Port Arthur on Pacific Ocean near Korea).
Revolution of 1905 - St.Petersburg soviet, led by Mensheviks under
Trotsky, led a strike, forcing the tsar to promise a parliament.
1906 general election for parliament (duma),
resulting in left wing majority demanding reform, disbanded by tsar, new
elections gave same result. Voting then limited to upper class and ethnic
Russians, ensuring co-operation, with tsar choosing prime minister (Stolypin)
and cabinet.
Russia involved in WWI through Balkans, then defeated in
Prussia, Poland, Baltic coast, Belarus, Ukraine. Tsar disbanded duma,
people starving.
1917 February - Petrograd (St.Petersburg, capital city of
Russia) riots. New and powerful Petrograd Workers’ Soviet. Duma set
up committee to govern in defiance of tsar Nicholas II - 1 March he abdicated.
Duma (led by PM Kerensky, moderate Social Revolutionary)
and Petrograd Soviet agree on provisional government, but continue involvement
in war against popular opinion. Lenin returns in sealed railway carriage
provided by Germany and Bolsheviks convince many with call for ‘peace, land
and bread’, but did not succeed in ‘July Days’ riots (Kornilov, the
military chief, attacked soviet demonstrators in Petrograd). Lenin fled to
Finland.
The Bolsheviks, led by Trotsky, took control of the
Petrograd Soviet, extending this to all other soviets. Lenin returned to
Russia.
October Revolution - Octobrists, reforming party,
had majority in Duma and supported land reform (led to independent serf class,
kulaks, with larger farms), and unrest diminished. Stolypin
assassinated, Petrograd Bolsheviks stormed Winter Palace in Petrograd and
arrested provisional government, seized government buildings, called an
All-Russian Congress of Soviets which declared the soviets as the
ruling councils in Russia, headed by the Soviet Central Executive Committee. A
Council of People’s Commissars became the government, headed by Lenin
(1917-1924), Trotsky as commissar for foreign affairs and Stalin as commissar
for nationalities.
25 October 1917 RSFSR declared territorial successor to
Russian Empire. Bolshevik Party renamed Communist Party, moved capital to
Moscow. At the November general elections only 25% of Russians voted for the
Bolsheviks, so the Bolsheviks disbanded the parliament at its first meeting.
1918-20 Civil war between Bolsheviks and opponents (mainly
from White Russia, the Belarus area), known as ‘Whites’ or White Russians.
Bolsheviks won.
Soviet government redistributed land, signed armistice with
Germany, established secret police force (cheka), founded Red Army, gave
Poland, Baltic provinces, Ukraine, Finland, Transcaucasia to Germany under the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
In 1918 former tsar, Nicholas, and family killed by
communist guards.
Soviet government (controlled by Communist Party) aims to
create classless society (by eliminating enemies) and nationalise all economic
sectors. Strict administrative control using ‘democratic centralism’ -
party decisions must be obeyed down the line. Politburo established for Party
decision making.
1921 Communist Party established one party rule using Red
Army and Cheka, to eliminate opponents. 1.5M escaped the country and 4M to 5M
people died in famine.
New Economic Policy adopted by 10th Party
Congress, allowed private enterprise to re-emerge. Lenin outlawed debate in
Party as factionalism, ordered purge of Party members by Cheka.
1922 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) established
by independent states of the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus, and
Transcaucasia. The country of Russia to be called Russian Soviet Federative
Socialist Republic (RSFSR). By 1940, 11 republics as Transcaucasia split into
Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijani, plus 5 central asia republics.
Cheka reorganised as GPU, with greater powers, later NKVD,
then KGB.
1924 Lenin suffered stroke and died. Stalin and
Trotsky in power struggle. Stalin orchestrated honours (eg. Petrograd
renamed Leningrad) in order to gain power and lead Party. Trotsky
agitated for worldwide revolution.
1929 Lenin (1929-53) recognised as leader of Party
and of country. Trotsky expelled from Party, exiled to Mexico and killed
by agent of Stalin in 1940. Stalin began purges, supreme control and
economic reforms.
First five year plan - farm collectivisation to
fulfil production quotas (most kulaks resisted and millions were killed
or deported to labour camps, half national livestock killed by resisting
farmers), quadrupling of heavy industry. Famine killed 6M in 1932/3.
Industries and mines established in central asia and Siberia, needing
workforce, provided by resisting farmers, and non-supporters of Stalin
in labour camps (gulags).
1936 Moscow ‘show trials’ - Party members accused
of capitalist or Trotsky sympathies or other non-support. NKVD ‘black
raven’ vans took victims from homes at night, some 8.5M people killed.
Gulag population at 8M in 1938, life expectancy two years, 10%
survival rate.
1939-45 USSR 15 republics - Baltic States and
Moldavia, Finns resisted.
UK & France ask Stalin to join in declaring war
if Germany invaded Poland. Stalin refused and signed non-aggression pact
with Germany, with secret agreement allowing future division of Poland
between them. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, France
declared war on Germany on 3 September. 22 June 1941 Hitler invaded
Soviet Union, by 1942 reaching Stalingrad (now Volgograd). The Allies
supplied arms, Russians fought hard (26-40M died) and the winter led to
the German Army surrendering on 2 February 1943.
1946-53 The Red Army’s success allowed the USSR to
dictate terms in the post-war settlement. It maintained control over
Eastern Europe, developing into a major power with a focus on military
and strategic industries.
The new enemy was seen as the capitalist world,
leading to the Cold War and Truman’s policy of ‘containment of
Soviet influence within its 1947 limits’. In 1948 the USSR blockaded
western Berlin, leading to the division of Germany and in 1949 the NATO
(North Atlantic Treaty Org.) was set up to protect Western Europe
against invasion. The USSR established military alliances, leading to
the Warsaw Pact in 1955.
1953 Stalin died (although millions died he was
revered for his work) and power passed to a group of 5 Politburo
members, resulting in struggle for power. The NKVD was re-organised to
the KGB.
1956 At 20th Party Congress Krushchev
denounced Stalin, accusing him of crimes to the detriment of the people
of Russia. Subsequently books were rewritten, places and institutions
renamed and Russia ‘deStalinised’. Unrest in satellite countries,
controlled by USSR Army - Poland and then 1956 Hungarian rebellion.
1957 Krushchev won the struggle for presidential
power, launched agriculture reforms and argued for USSR triumph over the
west by economic means. A series of crises undermined his power - in
1961 Berlin wall built to prevent exodus from eastern Germany, 1962 USSR
had to withdraw after placing nuclear missiles in Cuba, then China and
USSR fought for the allegiance of central asia and the far east areas.
After the disastrous wheat harvest in 1963, when Russia had to buy wheat
from Canada, Krushchev was relieved of his post because of ‘advanced
age and poor health’.
1964-82 Brezhnev took over as president, Stalin
regained limited status and the administrative reforms rolled back,
leading to economic stagnation. However, detente (easing of
tension with other powers) and SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty)
signed with Nixon. Dissident movements grew and in 1972 Andropov, the
KGB leader, introduced new measures including enforced emigration and
psychiatric institutions. Government and Party elite (nomeklatura) enjoyed
lavish lifestyles, corruption in Party spread.
New Czech. leader Dubcek, promised less repression,
but move crushed by Soviet army in 1968 (‘Prague Spring’), also
border clashes with China.
1978 new constitution in RSFSR. 1982 Brezhnev died.
1983 Andropov introduced reforms, but died after 14
months in office, then Chernenko who died after one year.
1985 Gorbachev - consolidated power through
reorganising Politburo and introduced many reforms including glasnost
(openness), agreement on reduction in nuclear weapons with Reagan,
improved relations with China, perestroika (restructuring), but
set back by secrecy over Chernobyl nuclear disaster in Ukraine.
1988 Gorbachev introduced political reform - a
parliament (Congress of People’s Deputies) with two-thirds elected
directly by people, reducing power of beaurocracy and Party. Elections
showed domination by Party, but some dissidents (eg. Sakharov, Nobel
Peace prize, held as political prisoner until 1986).
1989 Increasing pressure for independence in
non-Russian republics and Berlin Wall fell in 1989 and reunification of
Germany in 1990, the end of the Cold War.
1990 Gorbachev persuaded Communist Party to vote away
its constitutional monopoly on power and USSR parliament chose him for
newly created post of executive president. Economic reforms collapsed
and and citizens became angry. Shevardnadze, a former Gorbachev
supporter, resigned, warning of dictatorship.
Baltic republics declared independence followed by
most other Soviet republics.
Yeltsin won chair of RSFSR parliament (3/4 area &
over 1/2 population of USSR), he resigned from Communist Party and
proclaimed sovereignty (ie. precedence of legislation over USSR) of
RSFSR.
1991 Gorbachev unpopular, Yeltsin voted as president
of RSFSR, banned Communist Party cells from government offices and
workplaces and demanded devolution of power from USSR to republics - a
union treaty to be signed 20 August. 18 August a delegation from the
Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR went to Gorbachev’s
Crimean dacha and demanded he declare a state of emergency.
He refused and went to the ‘White House’ (Russian
Parliament) where supporters opposed the coup and the coup leaders fled.
Gorbachev, trying to establish a loose union of Soviet States and
supported by the Soviet parliament, lost political power and resigned as
USSR Communist Party leader.
1991 Demise of USSR and establishment of Commonwealth
of Independent States (CIS). Yeltsin gained power, banning Communist
Party in Russia, supporting independence for republics and on 8 December
leaders of the Russia (Yeltsin), Ukraine and Belarus announced the CIS,
a new alliance with no central authority. Russia removed the USSR
government from the Kremlin on 19 December and two days later 8 more
republics joined CIS. Gorbachev resigned 25 December 1991. Russia now
called Russian Federation (comprises 21 semiautonomous republics and 68
regions and territories, with federal laws taking precedence over
local).
1992 Plans for free market economy in Russia, however
corruption and poverty reduced Yeltsin’s popularity with the
parliament and the people. Parliament chose Chernomyrdin as prime
minister. Yeltsin and the parliament continued to issues contradictory
decrees, as the 1978 constitution did not clarify the division of power
between parliament and president. Communist Party permitted to operate.
1993 April 1993, national referendum gave Yeltsin
large vote of confidence and he began reform of the constitution.
Parliament and Yeltsin each endeavoured to strip each other of power,
the army attacking parliament with over 100 dead. Elections for a new
form of parliament were held and the Liberal Democratic Party led by
neofascist, Zhirinovsky won considerable support (blamed Jews &
foreigners for problems, courted Saddam Hussein, supported annexing
independent republics, Alaska, Finland and Poland), but vote more likely
against falling living standards and increased crime, than for his
views.
Referendum allowed Yeltsin to introduce 1993
Constitution giving power to president - decrees with force of law,
nominate PM and call new election if Duma rejects nominee three times,
select cabinet, veto legislation, control defence, security and foreign
policy. Upper house (Federation Council), lower, more influential house
(State Duma).
1994 Success in economic reform only in big cities
eg. Moscow (pop. 9M), St.Petersburg (reverted from Leningrad in 1991 -
pop.5M)). Major crime and corruption problems across Russia.
1995 Russian forces in most former USSR republics,
and instigated war in Chechnya (route of oil pipeline from Caspian Sea
to Russia). Increasing economic problems and heart attacks suffered by
Yeltsin decreased his popularity, yet he was re-elected in the 1996
presidential elections. Yeltsin won over Zyuganov, Lebed, Gorbachev, and
Zhirinovsky, appointing Lebed to oversee security, law and order.
1996 Lebed negotiated peace with the Chechen rebels,
gained widespread popularity and criticised Yeltsin’s policies and
lack of leadership due to ill health. He was sacked by Yeltsin and
established the Russian Popular Republican Party.
1997 Yeltsin returned to work to major problems -
uncollected taxes, unpaid government workers, corruption, regional
political instability. Yeltsin blamed the government and ordered
Chermomyrdin to reshuffle cabinet and abolish a number of ministries.
The impact of a planned nationwide trade union protest was reduced by
promises to pay all wages owed. Yeltsin agreed to an extension of NATO
in return for membership of new NATO council to set European security
policy.
1998 Yeltsin in conflict with Duma - it does not
endorse his nomination for PM twice, leading to prospect of dissolution.
Yeltsin nominates Primakov on third occasion which is accepted.
Government inaction due to political manoeuvring, inflation increases at
rapid rate, unpaid worker unrest and IMF wants economic reforms before
agreeing to more loans.
Population
Over 80% population are Russians of Slavic origin. The Russian Federation
republics are based loosely on non-Russian minority groups:
* middle volga minorities - Tatars (muslims), Chuvash
(orthodox christian), Bashkirs (muslim);
* northern minorities - Karelians (also in Finland);
* southern minorities - Chechens (muslim), Avars;
* cossaks -
1996
148M (average of 9 people/sq.km.) Most in European Russia
(25 people.sq.km.)
Life expectancy falling - Males 1990 64yr, 1996 56yr.
Females 1990 73yr., 1996 70yr.
Population growth -0.07%.
